Buddhist Meditation: A Brief History, Part 2
by Helene Ciaravino

THE CONCEPT OF MEDITATION

Meditation is a general term that refers to the practice of mental exercises which bring an individual closer to nirvana. The practice of meditation helps the practitioner to know the mind, to gain control over the mind, and therefore to finally free herself from the mind. Below, we further investigate the role that meditation plays in the Eightfold Way. We then examine the role of meditation in the Buddhist’s life.

What Role Does Meditation Play in the Eightfold Way?

In the previous discussion of the Eightfold Way, we identified the umbrella category of meditation—exercises of mental discipline—and assigned three elements under it: right effort, right awareness, and right concentration. The last of these, right concentration, is sometimes called right meditation, and refers to the specific application of meditation methods according to a person’s particular needs. For example, a person who struggles with a scattered and nervous mind might choose to practice a meditation technique that encourages stillness of mind. The decision to do this, and the action of accomplishing it, falls under right concentration or right meditation. It is important to note that the umbrella category applies not only to specific meditation sessions, but to the entire lifestyle of a person. By looking at the three elements of the Eightfold Way that occur under the general topic of meditation, we will better understand how crucial meditation is on the path toward nirvana.

What Is Right Effort?

Right effort involves working toward control over the senses so that they allow only that mental activity which works toward enlightenment, while avoiding perceptions and thoughts that work against enlightenment. This is not to suggest that a person will not, or should not, notice or respond to certain sense triggers. As you will learn in the discussion of right awareness, below, it is crucial that the individual be fully aware of all sensations and objects. But every individual can work to diminish her emotional response to them, and can get better at this diminishment with practice. So instead of reacting emotionally to someone or something—feeling hatred or desire, sympathy or repulsion—the meditation practitioner should make an effort to simply observe the object and make a mental analysis of it. Eventually, that analysis will chip away at any personal attachment, good or bad, to that object. The meditation technique of guarding the senses, which is an important part of right effort, is discussed later.

What Is Right Awareness?

The terms right awareness, mindfulness, and attentiveness all refer to the individual’s full awareness of everything within and around her, including the body, the mind, and all sensations and objects. By becoming mindful of even the most common of things, like breathing, the mind’s tendency to wander, to jump, and to pass ridiculous judgment is greatly diminished, allowing the individual to let go of anxiety and to exist in a calm, productive state. The mind is then able to take control of the moment and the object of its attention. Obsessions with the past and the future fade away, and the practitioner is better able to act appropriately in the present.

What Is Right Meditation or Concentration?

Right meditation, or concentration, allows a person to understand techniques of meditation, and how she can apply them to gain calm and insight. According to Hans Wolfgang Schumann in Buddhism: An Outline of Its Teaching and Schools, techniques include guarding the senses (right effort), awakening the senses (involved in right awareness), focused observation, trance, contemplation, and abiding. Most of these are discussed under “Meditation Techniques,” found later in the article. Trance is not further discussed because it involves levels of realization about perception and consciousness that are too complicated to be responsibly handled here.

Where Did the Practice of Meditation Begin?

Clearly, the basic intentions and techniques of Buddhist meditations can be traced back to the Buddha and the very first teachers of the dharma. That’s not to say that Buddhists have not further developed techniques and modified them to form new traditions. But the Buddha himself included “right meditation” in his Eightfold Way to Termination of Suffering and practiced meditation exercises.

Interestingly, though, there was an established tradition of mental-discipline exercises before the Buddha, and some of his thinking was drawn from these practices. The ancient Indian tradition of Yoga, which influenced Buddhism and, at the same time, Hinduism, involved many highly developed mental exercises. A short history lesson will give you an idea of how far back the discipline of meditation goes.

In the ancient culture of what is now India, the indigenous people based their way of life on Yoga. A term that means “yoking,” Yoga refers to the gathering of the mind’s powers through disciplinary concentration exercises, and thereby increasing the force of the individual’s inner world. In the cultural sense, Yoga applies to an entire lifestyle, from breathing, to eating, to understanding the cosmos and the individual’s place in it. The concept of karma existed in the Yogic tradition. So did the idea that each person is responsible for her own spiritual progress, rather than being subject to the whims and judgments of the gods.

Scholars have discovered that in the seventeenth century bce, the Aryan people, who came from the region known as Iran today, invaded the Indus Valley region (India). The Aryans conquered the natives of the land and impressed their religious beliefs upon them. Identified as the Vedic tradition, these beliefs are chronicled in the Rig-Veda text. The Aryans recognized many gods, most of which represented forces of nature. Very early on, there were signs that worshippers had a general concept that the various gods were all expressions of one Divine. But myths allowed discussion of the mystery that no one could solve.

By the eighth century bce, the Vedic religion was no longer satisfying for the population, and traditions from the Yogic belief system resurfaced. The concept of karma was met with great interest, as was the concept of an individual’s responsibility for her own spiritual progress. The gods that had been implanted by Vedic traditions were further understood to be mythical explanations for one great reality. A return to Yogic postures, breathing techniques, and concentration exercises now became widespread. Buddhist meditation practices are rooted in Yogic mind techniques that resurfaced when Vedic beliefs were no longer satisfactory.

How Important Is Meditation in Buddhism?

Meditation is very important to the person who is working toward enlightenment. It is part of the path that is believed to bring an individual into nirvana. Meditation teaches a person to understand the processes of the mind, from which craving and delusion stem, and therefore to control these processes and ultimately eliminate them. It is only in freeing oneself of a desirous and deluded mind that liberation from suffering is possible.

Does Meditation Change a Person’s Karma?

You probably remember that karma actually refers to the intention behind deeds, both good and bad, and is necessarily a part of the whole cycle of birth and rebirth in suffering—samsara. The individual’s intentions determine the conditions into which she will be reborn—and whether she will be reborn at all.

The purpose of meditation is actually to eliminate karma, not to improve it. Meditation should be geared to end craving and ignorance—even the craving to do good things in order to better one’s own state, because that is ultimately a selfish drive. Acts of meditation allow the individual to shed the notion of individuality, not to work toward improving her “self.” Therefore, rather than being viewed as a means to obtain better karma, meditation should be understood as one of the necessary elements of the Eightfold Way, which terminates the karmic process.

That being said, as a person develops a life of meditation, she naturally becomes more compassionate and balanced. If she does not attain enlightenment in this lifetime, she will at least have achieved good intentions that will produce positive karmic effects.

Does Buddhist Meditation Involve Prayer to Saints and Spirits?

As implied by this article’s earlier discussion of the various spheres of beings, the Buddha did not refute the existence of gods, spirits, demons, and the like. He just confirmed that they, too, were bound by the cycle of samsara. In traditional Buddhist philosophy, there are gods, humans, spirits, animals, beings of hell, and, according to some sources, a separate sect of demons. Humans are actually in the most desirable position because they are most likely to understand the need for enlightenment, and they are the beings who can be exposed to and observe the Buddha’s teachings. So there is no need to pray to other samsaric beings for aid or guidance.

However, saints—called arahants—and Buddhas are beings who have reached enlightenment. Remember, a Buddha differs from a saint in that he attained nirvana on his own, without the tutoring of a dharma teacher. Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism schools state that help can be obtained from saints and Buddhas who have compassionately committed themselves to remaining in connection with the samsaric cycle in order to aid others in their quests toward enlightenment. Such beings are often referred to as bodhisattvas (pronounced bo-dee-saaht'-vaahs). Some Buddhists who are working toward enlightenment practice prayer to these beings. They often dwell on images of these saints and Buddhas for inspiration, asking them for additional instruction on the dharma and for help in attaining the discipline necessary to achieve enlightenment.

Of course, Siddhattha Gotama is worshipped by countless Buddhists as a savior who spiritually helps those who turn to him, above all, in faith and confidence. Once Buddhism started breaking into various schools, the idea arose among many of them that the Buddha was superhuman, even divine. Folk religions mixed with Buddhism to yield practices in which pilgrimages to shrines of the Buddha—as well as other Buddhas—were encouraged. Such pilgrimages are thought to bring blessings upon faithful visitors, thus heightening their chances for better samsaric experiences and for more quickly reaching nirvana.

There are also deities within certain Buddhist schools of thought. These deities, which were never human, are gods of enlightenment, and serve to remind people of certain qualities that are necessary for enlightenment. In fact, their role is pretty much the same as that of saints and Buddhas—they can be depicted and dwelled upon—except that they are mythical, not historical, figures.

So within some types of Buddhism, there are prayer practices to saints and Buddhas. But prayer is not the purpose of meditation practices. The goal of true meditation is to actively work toward emptying the mind of attachments, and prayer is born from attachment. Therefore, there is a distinction between traditional Buddhist meditation and the folk prayer traditions that have arisen over the centuries in some schools.

MEDITATION TECHNIQUES

Several meditation techniques are described in the following paragraphs. It is important to note that proficiency in these techniques develops with practice, over time. The first goal that the individual must work toward is the attainment of calm or tranquility. But as the meditator becomes more advanced, the techniques actually serve as tools for insight, or increased knowledge. The meditator begins to see and comprehend the subtleties of life, understanding things as they really are. Ultimately, she realizes the impermanence of everything and the futility of attachment. These realizations, in turn, yield a sense of detachment and, finally, the disintegration of the ego or self. It is in this way that the meditator moves toward nirvana.

Guarding the Senses

The purpose of the guarding the senses technique is to make oneself aware of the way the mind judges objects and, therefore, imposes personal prejudice onto everything around it. In Nyanaponika Thera’s The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, we learn, “Normally man is not concerned with a disinterested knowledge of ‘things as they truly are’, but with ‘handling’ and judging them from the viewpoint of his self-interest, which may be wide or narrow, noble or low. He tacks labels to the things which form his physical and mental universe.” Ultimately, the meditator who guards the senses moves away from using labels. She avoids passing judgment, a habit that comes so naturally to the human in response to sense stimuli. As she conquers the habit of judging both physical objects and her own thoughts and perceptions, she achieves detachment.

The practitioner begins guarding the senses by making a conscious effort to observe only simple facts when encountering stimuli. For example, if she sees a man, her natural tendency might be to regard him as attractive or unattractive. But in guarding the senses—eyesight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and mind—she attempts to see him more objectively. She tries to put aside thoughts of personal desire or repulsion, and to make objective observations instead: he has dark hair; he is slender; he has a quiet voice. As the practitioner develops this form of meditation exercise, in which she learns not to see things in light of the self’s desires, she achieves greater composure and levelheadedness; she is not dominated by personal greed or distaste. This brings her forward on her journey toward nirvana.

Let’s take another example, just so we don’t limit ourselves to thinking that this type of meditation is people-oriented. Consider the example of a thick, soft blanket that appeals to the sense of touch. A person might automatically think, “This blanket is comfortable and warm.” This simple thought is actually loaded with self-centered perception. The person understands the blanket not as a thing in and of itself, but as an object that will feel good on her skin. Practicing the guarding of the senses would help the practitioner keep the self out of her observations. The practitioner would make the effort to simply notice the color, the size, the texture. Eventually, she would see the blanket not as an object that has potential to affect her, but just as an object consisting of many elements.

A little earlier, you may have noted that in Buddhism, the individual’s world is created by six senses: eyesight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and the activity of the mind. Guarding the mind from mental phenomena is the highest level of guarding the senses. The practitioner actually works on diminishing attachment to states of mind, such as happiness and fear. She analyzes even subtle perceptions, seeking to empty them of personal involvement. The goal of meditation, in general, is to clear away the clutter of mental “objects.” Guarding the mind helps to achieve that goal. Note that guarding the senses can be practiced at any time; it is not designed specifically for use during sitting meditation sessions.

Awakening of Awareness

Some of the most ancient Buddhist texts contain a meditation exercise known as satipatthana, or awakening of awareness. The aim of this exercise is to become mindful of activities that are usually performed unconsciously or semiconsciously. The exercise can thus enhance sensitivity and control of the mind, and help develop better concentration. Because by enhancing sensitivity, this technique also enhances alertness and clarity, it may be referred to as “sharpness of the mind.” Upon practicing it, the individual becomes levelheaded and calm.

Awakening of awareness can permeate all levels of existence. Generally, the practitioner starts with awareness of bodily activities by examining breathing, standing, lying down, and walking. She then moves to feeling; state of mind; and, finally, all of the minute mental contents such as perceptions that arise unconsciously. Below, you will learn about two of the most basic forms of this technique—breathing meditation and walking meditation.

Breathing Meditation

In her book The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Nyanaponika Thera discusses mindfulness of breathing. She clarifies, “It is an exercise in mindfulness, not a ‘breathing exercise’. . . . there is no ‘retention’ of breath or any other interference with it. There is just a quiet ‘observation’ of its natural flow.”

Beginners are advised to focus on breath awareness for a short but quality “sit” at first—maybe ten minutes—and to gradually increase the length of the meditation over time. The meditator sits either in a firm chair, on a mat, or on a cushion. She should be comfortable and maintain good posture. Whichever sitting technique the meditator chooses, pressure should be well distributed along the spine, and hands should rest comfortably either on the knees or cupped in the lap.

To begin, the meditator generally takes a few deep breaths to cleanse the body and mind, release tension, and gather her attention. Some teachers instruct that attention should be placed in the abdominal area, below the navel. This is considered the seat of energy in Zen and other meditation schools, as well as in Yoga. But other forms of Buddhism instruct meditators to focus simply on the place where the breath first makes contact with the body—the nostrils. Regardless of the meditator’s focal point, she proceeds with natural breathing performed in a comfortable rhythm.

In Mary Heath’s “The Benefits of Zen Meditation in Addiction and Recovery,” we learn about two methods of breathing meditation. The first is “breath counting,” a technique that’s great for beginners. The meditator keeps track of the number of breaths, gearing herself for counting ten breaths at the most. She simply takes a full breath and, upon exhale, mentally proclaims, “one.” After the second breath, she thinks, “two,” and so on. This method helps the meditator remain focused on breathing as the sole intention of the moment. When her mind strays, it is best for the practitioner to gently call her attention back to breathing, without getting angry at herself, and to restart the counting. Once the desired number is reached, the meditator begins again at “one,” or ends the meditation session.

The second method is simply to experience the breath. The meditator notices the subtleties of the breath—if it’s warm or cold; how it feels as it is drawn down into the abdomen; if there is a change in its characteristics as it goes deeper into the body. The mind doesn’t fixate on set answers to these questions, but simply becomes aware of the intricacies of the process. Eventually, the meditator loses awareness of everything but the breathing. She becomes so immersed in the breath that it seems the only thing that exists or matters in those moments. The notion of the self disintegrates as the breath becomes all-pervasive.

Walking Meditation

Walking meditations are sometimes interspersed with sitting meditations, but can also be performed alone. Beginning meditators who find sitting meditation troublesome may benefit from first trying walking meditation. The technique is quite simple; the practitioner walks slowly around the meditation room or over a carefully selected outdoor spot. Concentration is placed on breathing and footsteps—on how each movement is orchestrated, coordinated.

As a way to enhance subtle awareness abilities, many meditators like to perform walking meditation in bare feet, in order to experience textures. Some like to walk on a consistent texture, while others like to step from hard floor onto mats or grass, and then back, moving across different stimuli. Environmental sounds and visual distractions fade away as the walking becomes the sole focus of the moment.

During walking meditation, the head should remain rather upright so that the practitioner can see where she’s going, though eyes are most appropriately downcast to guard against visual distractions. The shoulders should not be tensed, nor the hands clenched. Hands are best held over the navel, cupping each other. Another good option is to leave the arms down by the sides, but touch the thumbs to the index fingers. The slight touching sensation seems to enhance sensitivity by providing a subtle stimulation, while encouraging the arms and hands to remain relaxed.

Many Buddhist temples have designated areas for walking meditation. Some of the meditation “courses” actually resemble mazes. Walkers find these paths very relaxing, and appreciate the fact that the already-carved paths allow them to trust the environment and concentrate more fully on each step.

Object Focus

Object focus involves attentive observation, or bhavana, of an item. The practitioner simply sits before an object, in a meditative posture, and focuses on it. It is a challenge to maintain mindfulness solely of that article, and not let various and sundry thoughts invade concentration.

Like other meditation techniques, object focus has great practical benefits. It quiets the mind, allowing it to develop concentration and one-pointedness. It drains away any excess mental activity. And it helps the meditator leave stresses behind, at least for a period of time, offering a nice break from the day-to-day rush.

Any item can be used in object focus, some of the most common ones being flames, stones, and the spiritual art objects called mandalas. Some sources even suggest focusing on clods of earth or other organic materials. Two forms of object focus are discussed below.

Flame Focus

The technique of concentrating on the flame of a candle has permeated every culture. Everyone knows that there is something inherently relaxing about candlelight. However, practitioners of meditation also know that when practiced properly, fixed attention on the flame is stimulating and enlightening. The meditator grasps the impermanence of the flame, noting how it jumps and swells, only to diminish and rise again. Yet on a deeper level, the meditator mentally enters the flame. She loses the sense of self as everything is drawn into that small tongue of light. For the Mahayana Buddhist, this is a wonderful opportunity to contemplate the oneness of everything as she merges her consciousness with the constantly changing flame.

Use of Mandalas

The Buddhist meditator can also focus on visual art objects that are mounted on a wall or placed on the ground. Among the Buddhist art forms used in meditation are the mandalas. These meditation aids—whether printed, painted, or designed in sand art—consist of an outer circle and a variety of geometrical designs within it, plus any symbols or figures that the creator decides to include. The meditator studies the mandala to gain knowledge about the universe and its processes. In fact, one of the translations of the Sanskrit word mandala is “whole world.”

The simplest mandalas contain geometric shapes in patterns that resemble a maze. The simplicity of shapes encourages the meditator to avoid distraction, and the maze pattern helps the meditator consider the paths of existence—how they are confined within samsara, and yet are constantly changing and moving. But mandalas can become very complex, holding symbolic depictions of life elements, celestial spheres, and more. Ultimately, meditation on the mandala is intended to trigger the spiritual energy inside of the meditator, making her more capable of insight.

Chanting

Chanting could be considered another type of object meditation. The focus, however, is not visual, but aural—that is, it is perceived by the ear. And aural focus is another way of quieting the mind. When the practitioner channels the mind’s energy into monotonous, vibrating sounds—chants—she trances herself into a deep concentration, shutting out all distractions and occupations with the self.

In The Power of Prayer’s essay “The Common Ground of Healing,” author Paul R. Fleischman, MD, discusses his experience with a gong used in an Indian Hindu temple. During meditation, someone kept banging a gong at consistent intervals. At first, the sound was terribly painful to the ear. But the disturbing noise then began to drown out the “noise” or tension within the body. In doing so, the sound of the gong actually created silence within. Buddhist chanting, like the sound of the gong at the Hindu temple, calls the mind away from internal noise. And the lulling vibration creates calm.

The phrases or sounds that a Buddhist meditator chants are called mantras. Mantras can be as simple as “Om,” or as complicated as long phrases recited in traditional Sanskrit or a regional Asian language. The Om Mani Padme Hung mantra is a very popular mantra. It was apparently developed by the Buddha of Compassion, also known by the names Avalokiteshvara and Chenrezi. In Tibetan, the pronunciation of that specific mantra is Om mani peme hung, and in Sanskrit, a traditional Indian language, the pronunciation is Om mani padma hum. This mantra can be understood in a number of ways. It can, for instance, be broken up into syllables, with each syllable being assigned an emotion from which the practitioner is to be purified. “Om” is associated with pride; “Ma,” with jealousy; “Ni,” with desire; “Pe,” with prejudice; “Me,” with possessiveness; and “Hung,” with hatred. As each syllable is recited, the chanter contributes to purification of negative karma due to the represented vice. A different way to understand the mantra is to assign a samsaric realm to each syllable, such as gods, humans, spirits, animals, beings of hell, and demons. Concentration upon each realm develops insight into existence. These methods of interpreting the mantra are only two of many.

Many practitioners of Buddhist meditation like to chant this mantra or other mantras 108 times, in accordance with the number of beads of the prayer-bead loop. The repetition helps the power of the mantra to develop within the individual.

Abiding

The technique of abiding is actually a progressive development of loving kindness, compassion, joy, and composure, and involves emitting these positive states in six directions—north, south, east, west, above, and below. This practice is believed to have a marked effect on everyone around the practitioner, producing an environment that is conducive to enlightenment. People become kinder, calmer, and more open. Animals are soothed. It has been recounted that the Buddha even subdued an attacking elephant by emitting loving kindness! (Don’t try this at home, though.)

The technique of abiding can be practiced in group or individually. The practitioner simply concentrates on allowing love and calm to manifest through her, toward others. It is interesting to note that compassion, in the Buddhist sense and in the way it is used in abiding, refers to knowing how to appropriately help another person. The term does not really apply to emotion or sentiment.

Abiding is a specific practice that takes great focus, and should be approached like any other sitting meditation; it is not just an attitude for life. However, abiding will become natural with practice and will generally help make the practitioner a pleasant, balanced person, in addition to benefiting surrounding beings.

Contemplation

The Buddhist practice of contemplation is quite different from the Christian practice of contemplation. In Christian practice, contemplation is an imageless dwelling with God—a basking in God’s presence. Buddhist contemplation, however, involves choosing a certain concept of Buddhism, as found in the ancient texts and the teachings of various masters, and then dwelling upon that concept. For example, the Dalai Lama, the political and spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, suggests considering the concept of impermanence as a contemplative meditation. The impermanence of all things was first recorded in ancient texts, and then confirmed by countless Buddhist teachers.

In contemplation, the practitioner’s goal is to gain familiarity with the concept being considered, and then, ultimately, realize the truthfulness of it. The Dalai Lama calls this final state spontaneous realization, meaning that the meditator no longer has to use reasoning to grasp the concept. Instead, she achieves understanding without effort because her mind has actually merged with the concept under contemplation.

The meditator who wants to study ancient texts in order to enhance her contemplation practice can turn to what comes closest to scriptures in Buddhism—the Tipitaka. This is made up of three books: the Sutra Pitaka, which consists of discourses attributed to the Buddha; the Vinaya Pitaka, which contains the monastic code; and the Abhidharma Pitaka, which offers discourses on philosophical, psychological, and doctrinal issues, and also serves as a type of glossary. Theravada Buddhists rely heavily on these writings, believing that they come directly from the Buddha. The Mahayana Buddhists, however, place less emphasis on these ancient texts.

Zazen

Zazen, meaning “awakening,” is a particular type of meditation practiced in the Zen tradition. Zen Buddhism was developed in China and Japan, and is now quite popular in the United States. The Zen Buddhists look upon meditation as the study of the self. Yet, paradoxically, this study is believed to yield the forgetting of the self, which ultimately leads to enlightenment. Zen Buddhists are popularly recognized as the “meditation Buddhists” because of the heavy emphasis they place on the ritual of zazen.

To practice zazen, a meditation cushion or a doubled-over mat is placed on the ground, generally in front of a wall. The practitioner stands in front of the cushion, facing the wall, and places her hands in gassho position. That involves turning the palms inwards and pressing the palm and fingers of one hand to those of the other hand. The coming together of hands symbolizes the oneness of everything and the one-pointedness—or perfect focus—of the enlightened mind. With hands in the gassho position, the practitioner bows, bending at the waist. She then turns clockwise to face the direction that was directly behind her, and bows again. In a Buddhist temple, this bow offers greetings to people who are seated behind the practitioner.

Once the bows in gassho are complete, the meditator sits upon her cushion and assumes her chosen leg and hand positions. She then sways the upper part of her body from side to side, decreasing the range of the sway as she continues, until she comes to rest in a balanced, centered position. She breathes naturally, easily, and silently, inhaling and exhaling through the nose. Effort is made not to concentrate on anything—neither on an object nor even on the intention to discipline her own mind. Traditionally, this position is maintained for thirty to forty minutes.

After meditation, while still sitting, the meditator performs a bow, puts her hands on her knees, and repeats the swaying process. Once she centers, she rises to a standing position, bows in gassho toward the wall, and bows in gassho again after turning clockwise to face the opposite direction. The zazen session is then complete. If the practitioner decides to perform another term of zazen, she is advised to take a break of approximately five minutes.

Emptiness Meditation

As detailed above, zazen accomplishes an emptying of the mind; the practitioner exists in peaceful nonattachment. It may be unique in its specific protocol, but is not unique in its intention. Some non-Zen Buddhist meditators, for instance, practice emptiness meditation. Also referred to as shikantaza, as well as other names, this advanced form of meditation has the same goal as zazen. In “The Basics of Buddhist Meditation,” Dr. C. George Boeree describes emptiness meditation: “You hold your mind as if you were ready for things to happen, but don’t allow your mind to become attached to anything. Things—sounds, smells, aches, thoughts, images—just drift in and out, like clouds in a light breeze.”

Most people must learn to control the mind through techniques such as guarding the senses and awakening of awareness before they are able to successfully accomplish emptiness meditation for an extended period of time. However, some practitioners with natural talents for stillness and mindfulness can practice this meditation technique without much trouble.

Once the techniques of meditation are understood, the person who is working toward enlightenment should focus on the ones that help her with her particular challenges. Different people find different techniques more helpful, due to their personal qualities and their personal needs. For example, if a woman has problems with scattered and desirous thoughts, she might work on awakening of awareness and on object focus. If she struggles with anger, she might find the practice of abiding very helpful. A large part of right concentration or meditation involves knowing which techniques must be developed into exercises, and then understanding how those exercises must be honed to move toward liberation.

ENHANCING THE PRACTICE OF MEDITATION

A number of practices and accessories can make meditation more effective, either by enhancing concentration or by reducing physical discomfort. By considering the following suggestions and adopting those approaches that you find personally appropriate, you may be able to greatly increase your success not only in Buddhist meditation, but in meditation practices of all types.

Comfortable Clothing

The clothing that is worn during meditation should be comfortable and nonrestrictive. For effective practice, the meditator must be able to sit in a contemplative position easily, without blood circulation being diminished. Otherwise, “pins and needles,” cramping, and other irritating if not painful conditions will result. So it is important to avoid stiff or tight belts, restricting elastic, and the like. It is also best to remove your shoes, and to meditate barefoot or wearing only socks.

Although it may sound unnecessary to mention the need for proper clothing, in our culture, where “comfortable” clothing is often denim jeans and heavy sweatshirts, this issue requires some attention. The bunching of thick material behind the knees, under the arms, and in other “bent” areas reduces blood and energy flow. The rough and heavy materials can also be distracting and cause the need to constantly shift. Take a lead from the monk’s meditation outfit—a loose robe and bare feet. Such clothing maintains modesty while causing few restrictions and no discomfort.

Diet

Diet is another issue that, unfortunately, is often overlooked in our culture. Traditional Buddhist monks ingest no solid foods or heavy liquids after midday, so that the body is not laboring with digestion during periods of meditation. This would be a difficult practice for most of us, and is unnecessary for the typical meditator, but it teaches us to be mindful of our eating habits prior to meditation.

Because the body and mind become fatigued when digesting food, meditation is not as effective when performed after a meal. However, taking a light snack or a refreshing beverage prior to meditation may actually aid concentration, as it insures that the stomach won’t spasm in hunger, and that electrolyte balance won’t be impaired.

In addition, keep in mind that the Buddha promoted moderation in all things. So even when not preparing for a meditation session, a person who is interested in a Buddhist lifestyle should continually maintain moderate food and drink intake. This keeps the body and mind healthy.

Postures and Gestures

A variety of postures can benefit the meditator by placing her in a concentration-enhancing position. It is important to note that none of the following positions has mystical significance. Rather, these postures have been designed by master meditators to produce the discipline and comfort needed to carry out effective meditation. Over time, they have been shown to foster stability, to improve blood and energy flow, to allow deep breathing, and to promote mind clarity and focus.

Regardless of how the legs and hands are situated, certain basics should be kept in mind throughout the meditation process. For instance, the back should always be kept straight. It is healthiest to allow a slight, natural curve inward of the lower spine—that is, a slight outward pushing of the stomach area—in order to maintain good posture and comfort. Shoulders and arms should be situated to avoid tension. The head is best fixed straight ahead and tilted slightly downward. It is also a good practice to keep the mouth closed, with the tongue slightly pressing against the roof of the mouth. This reduces salivation, thereby cutting down on the need to swallow, and thus lessening distractions. Finally, the eyes can either be closed, half-open, or entirely open. But it is often suggested that the meditator keep her eyes cast downward and ahead a few feet, thus remaining half open. This diminishes the need to blink, while avoiding the sleepiness that can often come with closed eyes.

If sitting in a chair, it is important to remain in an upright position; the meditator should not allow herself to rest on the arms of the chair, or to slouch against the back or sides of the chair. Some meditation teachers suggest that the meditator place a meditation cushion under her buttocks. The cushion is designed to tilt the hips slightly forward, allowing a good distribution of pressure along the spine. It also encourages the meditator to keep her feet firmly on the floor, which is important for proper balance.

When sitting on the floor, most meditators find it helpful to place a mat or cushion beneath them. Kneeling is known as the seiza position. Some people find unsupported kneeling to be very difficult on the back and ankles. To rememdy that situation, either a cushion or a wooden seiza bench can be placed atop the heels or calves, allowing the meditator to rest her buttocks on it. This promotes better posture and good balance. Nyanaponika Thera states that in the East, female meditators do not sit in a cross-legged position, but rather kneel, resting on their heels, but using puffy, plump cushions as just described. Their hands simply rest on their knees.

The meditator can also choose from several floor-sitting positions. It is important for her to fold the legs in a comfortable crossed-leg position, not to place unnecessary strain on her joints and muscles. Over time, with consistent practice, the leg muscles will stretch and more advanced sitting positions will be possible. Regardless, it is best to use a plump meditation cushion, or zafu, to raise the rear and hips, drop the knees toward the floor, and distribute pressure properly along the spine. Balance, as well as breathing and mental efficiency, is better achieved in this way.

The best-recognized Buddhist floor-sitting position is the full lotus, which involves tucking the legs in as if about to sit “Indian style,” but then placing each ankle on top of the opposing thigh. This is considered the most stable position, as it allows the body to reside in full symmetry. However, it is also the most difficult position to achieve. The half lotus is another option, and means placing only one foot on top of the opposing thigh, with the other foot remaining tucked under the opposite leg. Those who find both of these positions uncomfortable should simply bend their legs in a way that allows comfort and blood flow. The Burmese position is the simplest option. In this posture, the legs are folded in and placed one in front of the other. The tops of the feet—or the sides, depending on ability—rest on the floor.

There are, of course, a number of options when it comes to hand positions, as well. Importantly, the hands should be comfortably resting either in the lap or on the knees. For the lap, the traditional Buddhist hand position is the cupping of one hand within the other—both hands open with palms up—and then the touching of the tips of the thumbs. A small oval-shaped space is formed between the thumbs and forefingers. This position is called the cosmic mudra.

For those who prefer to rest the hands on the knees, hands can be placed downward or opened upward. When palms are turned up, it is helpful to lightly press the tip of each thumb against the tip of its accompanying forefinger. This prevents tension and promotes concentration.

Meditation Accessories

The following objects can contribute to the further effectiveness of your meditation sessions. These accessories can be found in New Age stores, Tibetan spirituality stores, some online meditation sites, and appropriate catalogues. See the Resource Directory for a list of online sources.

Prayer Beads

The traditional string of prayer beads used in Buddhist meditation is referred to as a mala. These beads are used for counting mantras. Ideally, there are 108 beads on the prayer-bead loop. The reason for this particular number is that Buddhism recognizes 108 different types of hindrances and obstacles that must be overcome on the path to enlightenment. The loop often has a small section branching off that contains a fringed tassel. The tassel serves to mark the beginning and end of the loop, but, for some meditators, also signifies how all separate entities come together in union. Shorter malas that resemble bead bracelets are also available.

Meditation Cushions, Kneelers, and Mats

A variety of sitting accessories can be used to make meditation postures a little more comfortable. First is the mediation cushion, called a zafu. This is a plump, firm pillow that can be placed under the buttocks to raise the hips and thus drop the knees toward the floor. Some are round while others are crescent-shaped, and some are less plump than others to allow for a gentler tilt. The posture that results from using a zafu is healthy and comfortable. Importantly, the best way to use a zafu is not to sit on top of it like a stool, but to tuck the pillow under only one- to two-thirds of your buttocks—not under the thighs. Some meditators also place the zafu between their thighs and heels while kneeling. This helps to maintain good circulation, as well as comfort. The zafu is suggested for use atop a chair seat, too.

Some meditators employ wooden benches to ease kneeling. Called seiza benches, these items are not positioned under the knees, as in traditional Christian prayer practices, but instead are placed between the buttocks and the heels. The benches—which usually slope at a slight decline to support the body—allow for enhanced comfort and circulation.

Meditation mats are the simplest sitting aid. Besides the added comfort provided by the slight padding, the mat also mentally fixes a clean space for the meditator. It draws a geometrical box around the person, reducing her tendency to feel vulnerable, distracted, or even lost in a large area.

Statues and Other Depictions

Many meditators find that when sitting in a meditation position, with head bent slightly forward, it is best just to let the eyes fall naturally where they will. But some find it helpful to set up a sacred table at the proper level so that the eyes fall upon a desired object that serves as an aid. Small, uncomplicated objects are most effective. A small candle is, of course, necessary for the practice of flame focus, but there are many other options. Geometric shapes, in their simplicity, are known to be helpful to many mediators, so a simple cube, disc, or triangle is a good idea. It is best to avoid shiny or heavily textured objects, as these might prove distracting.

It is also not uncommon for the Buddhist meditator to keep a small statue of the Buddha on her prayer table. And there are many Buddhas that various cultures pray to and emulate, such as the Buddha of Compassion, who is very popular among Tibetan Buddhists. Fixating on a statue or framed depiction of a Buddha may trigger calm in the meditator, or encourage and inspire her on her path to enlightenment.

Mandalas

Mandalas are certainly beautiful works of art, but they are also much more than that. When a meditator concentrates on a mandala, spiritual energy begins flowing, and knowledge about the universe is then imparted. A mandala usually is made up of an outer circle with geometric shapes and/or symbols carefully arranged inside. Whatever the complexity, this prayer accessory promotes focus and calm, opening the mind to further insight.

Prayer Wheels

Prayer wheels are traditional devices used in certain Buddhist traditions. They consist of numerous copies of the mantra Om Mani Padme Hung, printed on very thin paper or on microfilm, wrapped around a spindle, and encased in a protective cylinder. The more mantras that are on a prayer wheel, the more powerful the wheel becomes. There are four types of prayer wheels—water, fire, earth, and wind wheels. Water wheels are spun by water, fire wheels are spun by the heat of a candle or light, earth wheels are turned by hand, and wind wheels are turned by the breeze.

A faithful Buddhist turns the prayer wheel—or allows wind, water, or heat to turn it—while reciting the mantra. Reciting it out loud or silently calls down benevolent attention and even blessings from Buddhas. Often, the hand that is not holding the prayer wheel is counting the mantra on prayer beads.

The positive power of all the mantras contained in the prayer wheel is believed to shoot out in ten directions as the wheel turns. In addition, it is said that Buddhas and bodhisattvas are manifested in prayer wheels. Their goodness radiates out, eradicating negative karma, blessing and purifying all people and creatures in the surrounding areas, and helping these beings move toward enlightenment.

CONCLUSION

The practice of Buddhist meditation is ancient, yet is as applicable today as it has always been. Meditation allows the practitioner to reap a variety of benefits, not the least of which is the ability to advance on the path toward liberation from suffering. In this way, it is akin to prayer. The meditator moves away from the graspings of this world, toward tranquility and insight. The ultimate goal is to extinguish the limited notion of the self. And if you think about it, this is also what people seek through prayer. Whether praying to Allah, God the Father, or Jesus Christ, whether reading Buddhist text or practicing zazen, practitioners have the same goal—to find liberation from the painful experience of isolation and want, and enter into a state of understanding and bliss.




From How to Pray by Helene Ciaravino (Garden City Park, New York: Square One Publishers